Oct 19, 2009
Memo
• Memos are almost always used within an organization
• Memos are usually unceremonious in style
• Memos are normally used for non-sensitive communication (communication to which the reader will not have an emotional reaction)
• Memos are short and to-the-point
• Memos have a direct style
• Memos do not have a salutation
• Memos do not have a complimentary closing
• Memos have a specific format that is very different from a business letter
Memo Format:
Memorandum
Date:
To:
From:
Subject:
________________________________________Text of the memo
General Information About Memos:
Memos usually have one-inch margins on all four sides, and the writer's initials always appear next to the name at the top of the memo.
The top line of a memo usually says "Memo" or "Memorandum." The company logo or letterhead frequently goes above this. Some companies omit the words memo or memorandum, although this is not the norm.
Below the word "Memo" or "Memorandum" is the date, the name of the person or persons to whom the memo is sent, the name of the writer or sender (with the writer's initials written-in by hand), followed by a very short description of the memo's topic. Sometimes the order of these four items is altered; however, they are always present. These four items are double-spaced and a solid line is frequently drawn below them, separating them from the memo's message.
Below the line is the memo's message area. The text in this area is single-spaced.
There are two ways to format the text of a memo: block format and modified block format. Block format begins every paragraph flush with the left margin and leaves an empty line of space between each paragraph. Modified block format indents each paragraph and does not leave an empty line of space between each paragraph. Do not mix block and modified block formats.
Parts of a Memo
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve the writer's purpose.
Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is presented in three parts: the context and problem, the specific assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.
1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to establish the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.
2. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you might say, "To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of rat extremities, I will...."
3. Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your reader the kind of information that's in store. For example, you might say: "This memo presents a description of the current situation, some proposed alternatives, and my recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo segments, you can refer to your major headings in this forecast statement to provide a better guide for your reader.
Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your research, but remember to keep it brief.
You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Try to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try "New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The major headings you choose here are the ones that will appear in your purpose-statement forecast.
Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in mind:
1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations.
2. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest--->weakest.)
Closing Segment
Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."
Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing, like this:
Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997
Good luck on your memo.
Translation
Translation must take into account constraints that include context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, and their idioms. A common misconception is that there exists a simple "word-for-word" correspondence between any two languages, and that translation is a straightforward mechanical process. A word-for-word translation does not take into account context, grammar, conventions, and idioms.
Translation is fraught with the potential for "spilling over" of idioms and usages from one language into the other, since both languages repose within the single brain of the translator. Such spilling-over easily produces linguistic hybrids such as "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English), "Poglish" (Polish-English) and "Portuñol" (Portuguese-Spanish).
The art of translation is as old as written literature. Parts of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, among the oldest known literary works, have been found in translations into several Asiatic languages of the second millennium BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh may have been read, in their own languages, by early authors of the Bible and of the Iliad.
With the advent of computers, attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation).
Parts of a report
Title Page Full title of the report. Your name.
Acknowledgements A thank you to the people who helped you.
Contents or Table of Contents
Headings and subheadings used in the report with their page numbers. Remember that each new chapter should begin on a new page.
Use a consistent system in dividing the report into parts. The simplest may be to use chapters for each major part and subdivide these into sections and subsections. 1, 2, 3, etc, can be used as the numbers for each chapter. The sections for chapter 3 (for example) would be 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and so on. For a further subdivision of a subsection you can use 3.2.1, 3.2.2, and so on.
There are no hard and fast rules about the structure. Compare what follows with his example of a "standard format", and see if you can understand the principals.
1. Theoretical overview (incorporating any necessary literature review)
2. Outline of your methodology
3. Analysis and presentation of your findings
4. Discussion (or summary) and conclusions
Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary or Introduction
This is the overview of the whole report. It should let the reader see, in advance, what is in it. This includes what you set out to do, how reviewing literature focused and narrowed your research, the relation of the methodology you chose to your aims, a summary of your findings and of your analysis of the findings.
BODY
Aims and Purpose or Aims and Objectives
Why did you do the work? What was the problem you were investigating? If you are not including a literature review, mention here the other research which is relevant to your work.
Literature Review: This should help to put your research into a background context and to explain its importance. Include only the books and articles which relate directly to your topic. Remember that you need to be analytical and critical and not just describe the works that you have read.
Methodology
Methodology deals with the methods and principles used in an activity, in this case research. In the methodology chapter you explain the method/s you used for the research and why you thought they were the appropriate ones. You may, for example, be doing mostly documentary research or you may have collected you own data. You should explain the methods of data collection, materials used, subjects interviewed, or places you visited. Give a detailed account of how and when you carried out your research and explain why you used the particular methods which you did use, rather than other methods. Included in this discussion should be an examination of ethical issues.
Results or Findings
What did you find out? Give a clear presentation of your results. Show the essential data and calculations here. You may want to use tables, graphs and figures.
Analysis and Discussion
Interpret your results. What do you make of them? How do they compare with those of others who have done research in this area? The accuracy of your measurements/results should be discussed and any deficiencies in the research design should be mentioned.
Conclusions What do you conclude? You should summarize briefly the main conclusions which you discussed under "Results." Were you able to answer some or all of the questions which you raised in your aims? Do not be tempted to draw conclusions which are not backed up by your evidence. Note any deviation from expected results and any failure to achieve all that you had hoped.
Recommendations Make your recommendations, if required. Positive or negative suggestions for either action or further research.
Appendix You may not need an appendix, or you may need several. If you have used questionnaires, it is usual to include a blank copy in the appendix. You could include data or calculations, not used in the body, that are necessary, or useful, to get the full benefit from your report. There may be maps, drawings, photographs or plans that you want to include. If you have used special equipment, you may want to include information about it.
The plural of an appendix is two or more appendices or appendixes. If an appendix or appendices are needed, design them thoughtfully in a way that your readers will find convenient to use.
Bibliography List all the sources to which you refer in the body of the report. These will be referenced in the body of the text using the Harvard method.
You may also list all the relevant sources you consulted even if you did not quote them.
A fax
A fax (short for facsimile and sometimes called telecopying) is the telephonic transmission of scanned-in printed material (text or images), usually to a telephone number associated with a printer or other output device. The original document is scanned with a fax machine, which treats the contents (text or images) as a single fixed graphic image, converting it into a bitmap. In this digital form, the information is transmitted as electrical signals through the telephone system. The receiving fax machine reconverts the coded image and prints a paper copy of the document.
E-mail, short for electronic mail and often abbreviated to e-mail, email or simply mail, is a store and forward method of composing, sending, receiving and storing messages over electronic communication systems. The term "e-mail" (as a noun or verb) applies both to the Internet e-mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and to X.400 systems, and to intranet systems allowing users within one organization to e-mail each other. Intranets may use the Internet protocols or X.400 protocols for internal e-mail service supporting workgroup collaboration. E-mail is often used to deliver bulk unsolicited messages, or "spam", but filter programs exist which can automatically delete some or most of these, depending on the situation.
Sep 30, 2009
Connecting ideas between sentences or paragraphs (transition words)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQpbZzjBqCs&feature=related
Transitional expressions can be used to connect ideas between sentences or paragraphs. Different categories or transition words and phrases are presented below. Words in the same categories are not always interchangeable.
You can use the following words as signals that additional information will follow
additionally, also , and , and then , as well, as well as , besides, besides that , equally important
finally, first, second, third, etc. following this further , further , furthermore , in addition,
indeed, in fact, last, lastly, likewise, moreover, not only …,but also… not to mention , or,
then, too, too, what is more
You can use the following words as signals that specific examples will be given:
especially, for example, an example, for instance, in this case, in another case
in this situation, including, namely, notably, on this occasion, particularly, in particular
specifically, take the case of , to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration,
You can use the following words as signals to clarify information that has been presented:
I mean, in other words, in this case, that is to say, to put it another way, under certain circumstances, up to a point,
You can use the following words as signals to emphasize information that has been presented or will presented :
above all, absolutely, always, as a matter of fact, besides, certainly, definitely,
emphatically, even more, extremely, forever, in any case, in any event, indeed
in fact, more importantly, naturally, never, obviously, surprisingly, that is, undeniably,
undoubtedly, unquestionably, without a doubt, without reservation,
You can use the following words as signals that a cause-and-effect relationship will be presented :
accordingly, as, as a result, because, because of, being that, consequently, as a consequence,
due to (the fact that ), owing to (the fact that ), seeing that, since, so, so much (so) that, for
for the simple reason that, for this reason, hence, in as much as, in that,
in view of (the fact that), so that, therefore, thus
You can use the following words as signals that the information already presented will be compared or contrasted with new information:
after all, although, although this is true, at the same time, balanced against, but,
compared to/with, in comparison, by comparison, conversely, for all that,
however, in contrast, in the same manner/ way, likewise, meanwhile,
nevertheless, nonetheless, none with standing, on the contrary, on the other hand,
similarly, still, when in fact, where, where as, while this is true, yet, yet
You can use the following words as signals of a time relationship:
after, after a while, afterwards, as soon as, at first, at last, at the same time, before, before long, before this, currently, during, eventually , finally , first of all, first, seconf, third, etc.
formerly, immediately, immediately before, immediately following,
in the end, initially , in the first place, in the future, in the meantime,
last, last but not least, lastly, later, meanwhile, next, previously, simultaneously,
soon, soon after, subsequently, then, and then, thereafter,
You can use the following words as signs for introducing disagreement or conflict:
Making a concession or compromise about a point:
admittedly, albeit, although, at least, be that as it may, but even so, even though,
given that, granted that, granting that, however, I admit that, In any event,
In either event, In the event that, naturally, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, still, though, yet
Dismissing a previous statement or argument:
All the same, besides, either way, even if, in any case, in any event, in either case,
in either event, in the event that, it may appear that, rather, regardless,
whatever happens, whichever,
Pointing out a contradiction:
but, by way of contrast, conversely, despite, however, in contrast, in spite of,
instead, when in fact, whereas,
Indicating reservations:
indeed, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, regardless,
Indicting digession too a previous point or resuming after a digression or interruption:
anyway, as I was saying, at any rate, by the way, incidentally, to change the topic,
to get back to the point, to return to the subject,
Pointing out conditions:
although, as/so long as, if, on (the) condition (that), only if, provided that,
providing that, unless,
You can use the following words as signals that a summary or conclusion will be presented:
accordingly, all in all, all together, as a result, as I have said, as I started,
as I have shown, as indicated above/earlier, as mentioned, as I mentioned,
as noted earlier, as has been noted, as I have noted, briefly, in brief, to put it briefly,
by and large, consequently, finally, given these facts, hence, in conclusion, to conclude,
in short, on the whole, overall, since, so, summing up, in summary, to summarize,
then, therefore, thus,
Sep 18, 2009
Ways to remember vocabulary
http://esl.fis.edu/learners/advice/read.htm
http://www.slideshare.net/skyearth/flashcards-presentation
http://www.cititube.mn/index.php?cat=ubs&action=channel&c=49
http://www.slideshare.net/first_suljee/slideshows
Sep 17, 2009
Writing a cover letter
How to Write a Cover Letter
Developed by the Gallaudet University Career Center
A cover letter accompanies your resume and introduces you to the employer. In the letter, explain where you learned about the job, tell why you are interested, and highlight what parts of your background make you most qualified for the position. You also can include specific information about how you can be contacted in case the exployer would like to interview you. A bad cover letter can tempt the employer to put aside your resume without even reading it.
Most important, your cover letter should not have any spelling or grammatical mistakes. Strong cover letters refer to past experience using action verbs and identify specific accomplishments that will be of most interest to the employer.
Guidelines for Application (Cover) Letter
|
Enclosure (Indicates that resume, application, etc., are enclosed.) |
Sample Covering Letter
The content and format of covering letters largely depends on the nature of the position applied for and whether the job is advertised you are enquiring on a speculative basis. Here is a sample of a speculative covering letter:
Mrs Jill Godwin8 AcremeadDevonshireTN5 888
J D EvansHead of AdministrationRJJ Bank15 High StreetLondonEC89 5JJ
1 March 2OOX
Dear Sir
Application - Secretarial Work
I have recently returned from a year's visit to the USA , and am looking for a suitable secretarial opportunity. I have enclosed my CV for your attention, and would hope that you find my details of interest.
My previous work in London was not in banking, but I am confident that my secretarial skills are appropriate to a banking environment, as my last role at JD Wills and Partners (a law firm) was as team secretary to a small team of partners working with banking clients.
Owing to my circumstances, I am available immediately, and would be delighted to discuss my CV with you, should you think this would be helpful.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely
Jill Godwin, Mrs
Job aplication
Personal Information:
• Name
• Address
• City, State, Zip Code
• Phone Number
• Eligibility to Work in US
• Felony convictions
• If under age, working paper certificate
Education:
• Schools/Colleges Attended
• Major
• Degree/Diploma
• Graduation Dates(s)
Position Applied
For Information:
• Title of the job you are applying for
• Hours/days available to work
• When you can start work
Employment Information:
• Names, addresses, phone numbers of previous employers
• Supervisor's name
• Dates of employment
• Salary
• Reason for Leaving
References
• List of three references - names, job title or relationship, addresses, phone numbers
Writing a reference letter
I have known Jane Doe in a variety of capacities for many years. She has been my daughter's riding instructor for the past several years.
In addition,she is my partner in a small business where she is responsible for writing and editing articles and website content.
Sincerely,
Reference letter: Sample 1
Oyungerel Baatarkhuu
Recommendation letter
School of Telecommunication and Information technology,MUST
Apt 30-47, 17th khoroo, Songino-Hairkhan district, Post Box-374, Post Office Ulaanbaatar- 21
Ulaanbaatar Mongolia,
To: "MobiCom" company
I have known Oyungerel for 4 years. During the years of our acquaintance, i have seen many abilities of her. She is able to study anything new and always tries to know anything new. I strongly recommend her for your offering position of work.
As Oyungerel's teacher, i have given her many tasks to do and she always done it on time. She skilled in communication software and hardware. She also has experience in Switching System as engineer and solved many problems occurred on Switching System.
If you're looking for experienced canditate with ability to rise, Oyungerel is an excellent choice. She is self-educated, responsible, skilled in teamwork and able to rise easily. Please do not hesitate to contact us. We will be glad to answer further question about Oyungerel.
Sincerely,
Senior lecturer BAYARMAA G
Recommendation Letter Sample 2
Information technology,MUST
Post Box-423, Post Office Ulaanbaatar- 49
Ulaanbaatar
To: Mongolian “Railcom” company
Solongo Dandar is an extraordinary young woman. As her English teacher, I have seen many examples of her talent and have long been impressed by her diligence and work ethic. I understand that Solongo is applying to the student exchange program at your company. I would like to recommend her for admission.
Solongo has outstanding organizational skills. She is able to successfully complete multiple tasks with favorable results despite deadline pressure. Solongo demonstrated leadership abilities that her classmates both admired and respected.
I must also make note of Solongo’s exceptional academic performance.
Out of a class of 150 students, Solongo learned English with honors in the top 10. Her above-average performance is a direct result of her hard work and strong focus.
If your Job offer (Vacancy) program is seeking superior candidates with a record of achievement, Solongo is an excellent choice. She has consistently demonstrated an ability to rise to any challenge that she must face.
To conclude, I would like to restate my strong recommendation for Solongo Dandar. If you have any further questions regarding Solongo’s ability or this recommendation, please do not hesitate to contact me using the information on this letterhead.
Sincerely,
Senior lecturer BAYARMAA G
Tel: 99167382 fax: 976-11-70151333
e-mail: gbayarmaa@itie.mng.net
Writing an essay
Your essay should start with an introductory paragraph. There are actually many different ways to begin an essay; therefore, the format of the introductory paragraph is flexible. Often, essays begin with a general introductory statement. This statement could be an anecdote, description, striking statistic, a fact that will lead to your thesis, etc. Beginning this way, you will use the first few sentences to prepare, or "lay the groundwork" for your thesis, and use the last sentence of the first paragraph to present your thesis. However, your thesis statement can be anywhere in your introduction. In a longer essay, you can even wait to present your thesis until the second paragraph or later. Also for a longer essay, you should begin to introduce a few supporting ideas in the first couple of paragraphs. These supporting ideas should be the topics that you will discuss in full in your body paragraphs. For a short essay, presenting supporting ideas during the introduction is optional.
Your second paragraph generally begins the body of the paper. (For a longer paper, the body of the paper may not begin until the third paragraph or later). This paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that introduces the first supporting idea (the support for your thesis). You should use the middle of the paragraph to discuss your support, give examples, and analyze the significance of these examples. Your last sentence of the body paragraph could be used to draw a conclusion for that supporting idea, or to transition into the next paragraph.
Your next two body paragraphs should follow the same format as your first body paragraph. They should each have a separate topic sentence and supporting ideas, but the three paragraphs should work together to prove your thesis. If you are writing a longer paper, you will have more than three body paragraphs, but they should all follow this format.
The form of your conclusion, like your introduction, is flexible. One good way to conclude a paper is to begin the last paragraph with a statement that reflects on what has been stated and proved, without repeating it exactly. Then you should briefly restate your key points to gently remind the reader how well you proved your thesis. Your conclusion should end with a statement or idea that leaves a strong impression and provokes further thought.Five Paragraph Essay Sample
The Hazards of Moviegoing
By John Langan
From College Writing Skills with
| Introductory paragraph (Thesis) | I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though, have stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in getting to the theater, the theater itself, and the behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often wait for a movie to show up on TV. |
| First supporting paragraph | First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a home equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive idea on a humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is still a thirty-minute drive to the theater down a congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a parking space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the end of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be enough tickets, whether you will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into the line ahead of you. |
| Second supporting paragraph | Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are in one of the run-down older theaters, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom-cleaned carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather seats, and half the seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer twin and quad theaters offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one-quarter the size of a regular theater, moviegoers often have to put up with the sound of the movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie involves racing cars or a karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether the theater is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the floor because they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda, hardening bubble gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes. |
| Third supporting paragraph | Some of the patrons are even more of a problem than the theater itself. Little kids race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own living rooms and comment loudly on the ages of the stars or why movies aren't as good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for repeated trips to the rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your seat. |
| Concluding paragraph | After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the movies and dealing with the theater itself and some of the patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV service installed in my home. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I'll be more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room. |
Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay
| Title: ____________________
|
Sample Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay
This is in relation to "The Hazards of Movie going"
| Title: The Hazards of Moviegoing
|
To define the essay briefly, one can say that it is a piece of writing usually short (3 to 10 pages), written in prose, and that may be on any subject. The essay is generally based on other people's statements. In the essay you can include your personal opinion, and some examples to illustrate your point of view. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is. However, the topic of an essay is too long and too complex to discuss it in one paragraph. Therefore, you must divide the topic into several paragraphs, one for each major point. In general, essays have three basic parts: introduction, body and conclusion.
- The Introduction
It is the first section of your essay. This makes it extremely important, because first impressions are often lasting ones. It consists of two parts: a few general statements about your subject to attract your reader's attention, and a thesis statement, that states the specific subdivisions of your topic and/or the "plan" of your paper. The introduction then, begins with remarks to interest people. As it progresses, it should present general ideas or facts to orient the reader. Then, it will narrow its focus, and move from general to specific facts smoothly and logically.
- The body Paragraphs
They are the longest section of you essay. In a short essay there are usually three body paragraphs, each one considering in detail one aspect of the essay's controlling idea. This is called a three-point essay. At the beginning of each of your support paragraphs, there is a topic sentence that tells what the rest of your text is going to be about. This sentence should direct your readers back to the controlling idea and indicate which aspect of it you are going to discuss. Once you present your topic, you need details and facts to support it. It is not enough to state your position; your reader needs to be convinced that your point of view is valid an accurate. There is not any rule that determines how long a body paragraph should be. The more relevant detail you can bring in to support each of your topic sentence, the clearer your points will be.
- The Conclusion
The ideas in this part must be consistent with the rest of your essay. In it, you should restate the controlling idea. This restatement is usually more effective when it is located at the beginning of the conclusion. It reminds your public about the major points you were trying to make, and it indicates your essay is about to end. Many writers like to end their conclusion with a final emphatic sentence. This strong closing statement will make your readers think about the implications of what you wrote. You do not introduce your points in your conclusion.
www.exampleessays.com www.lotsofessays.com http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJg138YlwvA&feature=fv "Essay" lecture: http://share.gogo.mn/35237611226676783
Writing an abstract
1st advice:
Steps for Writing Effective Abstracts
To write an effective abstract, follow these steps:
1.Reread the article, paper, or report with the goal of abstracting in mind.
-Look specifically for these main parts of the article, paper, or report: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendation.
-Use the headings, outline heads, and table of contents as a guide to writing your abstract.
-If you're writing an abstract about another person's article, paper, or report, the introduction and the summary are good places to begin. These areas generally cover what the article emphasizes.
2.After you've finished rereading the article, paper, or report, write a rough draft without looking back at what you're abstracting.
-Don't merely copy key sentences from the article, paper, or report: you'll put in too much or too little information.
-Don't rely on the way material was phrased in the article, paper, or report: summarize information in a new way.
3.Revise your rough draft to
-correct weaknesses in organization.
-improve transitions from point to point.
-drop unnecessary information.
-add important information you left out.
-eliminate wordiness.
-fix errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
The following suggestions for generating the list of key words are offered to authors:
--list key words in alphabetic order;
--include the obvious;
--search the title and abstract for possible entries;
--list the research areas, general type of study, or general class of processes examined;
--identify the specific problem studied and the method used;
--indicate the type of results reported; and
--use synonyms freely or suggest cross references.
Remember that the potential reader may not be an expert in thefield.
2nd advice:
Abstracts are short statements that briefly summarize an article or scholarly document. Abstracts are like the blurbs on the back covers of novels. They entice someone to read further. With an abstract, you have to prove why reading your work is worthwhile. On the Internet, an abstract is the first stage in getting someone to read a longer piece of writing. A magazine abstract is a concise summary of a longer article and entices readers to enjoy an entire magazine. Abstracts should be informative and brief, covering the basics and provide an opinion of the article to the reader. Creating a magazine abstract for the Internet is a simple and effective way of streamlining content.
- Step 1
Review your original article. Outline its main themes and highlights to use for your abstract.
- Step 2
Write a rough draft. Summarize the article using new words. Don't copy and paste from the original! This rough draft should be longer than your finished product so you can delete unnecessary words. Let yourself brainstorm while you edit.
- Step 3
Re-read your original article and try to pinpoint any concepts you could use as keywords for an Internet search. Headings, titles or table of contents are usually good sources of keywords.
- Step 4
Write an introductory sentence. This will be a statement of purpose for your article. It should introduce your central concept.
- Step 5
Write the body. This will be a brief description of the subject matter, roughly one or two paragraphs. Embed keywords into the first 20 words of the body. Make them inconspicuous so they don’t break the reader’s concentration.
- Step 6
Write a one or two sentence conclusion. This should entice someone to read more.
- Step 7
Edit and revise your abstract as needed. It is best to let a day pass before you return to it with fresh eyes. Edit unnecessary words. Be sure you clearly present your main points.
What is an abstract?
A definition
An abstract is a succinct summary of a longer piece of work, usually academic in nature, which is published in isolation from the main text and should therefore stand on its own and be understandable without reference to the longer piece. It should report the latter's essential facts, and should not exaggerate or contain material that is not there.
Its purpose is to act as a reference tool (for example in a library abstracting service), enabling the reader to decide whether or not to read the full text.
Two common reasons for writing an abstract are
- to summarise a longer piece of work published as a journal article, thesis, book or web page, an existing article for the purposes of a journal,
- or to submit an application to write a paper for a conference.
In both cases, you will be given specific guidelines as to how to write the abstract including a maximum word count from either the relevant publisher or the organiser of the conference; those for Emerald are set out below. Conference papers are usually selected on the basis of abstracts: see tips below.
How to go about the writing process
- Start by writing a statement of the paper's purpose, which should be as succinct as possible. If you include background keep this to a minimum and only include such information as to provide a context.
- Summarise the paper, reporting its main facts. Remember the following points:
- Follow the chronology of the paper and use its headings as guidelines.
- Do not include unnecessary detail, as in the first example in 'How not to write an abstract'.
- You are writing for an audience "in the know" – you can use the technical language of your discipline or profession, providing you communicate your meaning clearly, and bear in mind that you are writing to an international audience.
- Make sure that what you write "flows" properly, that there are "connecting words" (e.g. consequently, moreover, for example, the benefits of this study, as a result, etc.) and/or the points you make are not disjointed but follow on from one another.
- Use the active rather than the passive voice, e.g. "The study tested" rather than "It was tested in this study".
- The style of writing should be dense, and sentences will probably be longer than usual.
- You should by now have a draft, which will probably be too long. Here are some points to remember in cutting:
- Cut out any unnecessary words that do not add to the meaning, but
- Make use that the abstract is not so 'cut' as to be unreadable; use full sentences, direct and indirect articles, connecting works, etc. An abstract should use continuous prose, not notes.
- Read through your draft, making sure that it covers the main points listed above, and that there are no grammatical, spelling or typographical errors, also that it 'flows' properly.
- If possible, get a colleague to read through your abstract as a form of 'peer review'.
- Submit!
If you have difficulty with the general purpose statement or with summarising your article, it may be because the article's general concept is not that clear, or perhaps your research design or approach needs revisiting.
Using keywords
Using keywords are a vital part of abstract writing, because of the practice of retrieving information electronically: keywords act as the search term. Use keywords that are specific, and that reflect what is essential about the paper. Put yourself in the position of someone researching in your field: what would you look for? Consider also whether you can use any of the current 'buzz words'.
Instructions for writing a structured abstract for Emerald
Emerald is introducing a new format for article abstracts intended to help researchers by consistently providing the most useful information. Each abstract is made up of a number of set elements. An example is provided at the foot of this page.
1. Choose a category for the paper
Pick the category which most closely describes your paper. We understand that some papers can fit into more than one category but it is necessary to assign your paper to one of the categories – these are listed and will be searchable within the database:
- Research paper. This category covers papers which report on any type of research undertaken by the author(s). The research may involve the construction or testing of a model or framework, action research, testing of data, market research or surveys, empirical, scientific or clinical research.
- Viewpoint. Any paper, where content is dependent on the author's opinion and interpretation, should be included in this category; this also includes journalistic pieces.
- Technical paper. Describes and evaluates technical products, processes or services.
- Conceptual paper. These papers will not be based on research but will develop hypotheses. The papers are likely to be discursive and will cover philosophical discussions and comparative studies of others' work and thinking.
- Case study. Case studies describe actual interventions or experiences within organizations. They may well be subjective and will not generally report on research. A description of a legal case or a hypothetical case study used as a teaching exercise would also fit into this category.
- Literature review. It is expected that all types of paper cite any relevant literature so this category should only be used if the main purpose of the paper is to annotate and/or critique the literature in a particular subject area. It may be a selective bibliography providing advice on information sources or it may be comprehensive in that the paper's aim is to cover the main contributors to the development of a topic and explore their different views.
- General review. This category covers those papers which provide an overview or historical examination of some concept, technique or phenomenon. The papers are likely to be more descriptive or instructional ("how to" papers) than discursive.
2. Write the abstract
To produce a structured abstract for the journal and Emerald database, please complete the following fields about your paper. There are four fields which are obligatory (Purpose, Design/methodology/approach, Findings and Originality/value); the other three (Research limitations/implications, Practical implications, and Social implications) may be omitted if they are not applicable to your paper.
Abstracts should contain no more than 250 words. Write concisely and clearly. The abstract should reflect only what appears in the original paper.
Purpose
What are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?
Design/methodology/approach
How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research. What is the approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper?
Findings
What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or results.
Research limitations/implications (if applicable)
If research is reported on in the paper this section must be completed and should include suggestions for future research and any identified limitations in the research process.
Practical implications (if applicable)
What outcomes and implications for practice, applications and consequences are identified? How will the research impact upon the business or enterprise? What changes to practice should be made as a result of this research? What is the commercial or economic impact? Not all papers will have practical implications.
Social implications (if applicable)
What will be the impact on society of this research? How will it influence public attitudes? How will it influence (corporate) social responsibility or environmental issues? How could it inform public or industry policy? How might it affect quality of life? Not all papers will have social implications.
Originality/value
What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.
Tips for writing abstracts for conference papers
The difficulty here is that you will probably be writing the abstract as a preamble to the actual paper, rather than subsequent to it. Here are some points to remember:
- Clarify in your own mind what is the purpose of the paper: what it is that you are going to do.
- Look carefully at the themes of the conference: note those that apply and frame your paper accordingly.
- Very often, the submission procedure will dictate the format and the number of words of the abstract. For example:
- Title
- Name of presenter, contact details
- Category of presentation (e.g. workshop, research paper, short paper, poster etc.)
- Conference themes addressed.
- Key words that will help people deciding whether or not to participate to understand its focus.
- Objectives/intended outcomes and activities for participants
- The abstract.
- Stick closely to the length given. You will often have no choice in this matter, because if you submit electronically you will find yourself cut off in mid sentence as you reach the required limit.
- When writing the abstract, ask yourself the following questions:
- What is the purpose of my paper? This should, as with any abstract, be a general definition statement about the objectives of your paper.
- What approach am I using? I.e. am I reviewing the literature, describing a case study, supporting a research hypothesis, and if the latter, what is my research design and research methodology?
- What are my findings?
- What is the import of my findings?
- Choose your keywords carefully, making sure that they match the themes of the conference.
An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. If done well, it makes the reader want to learn more about your research.
These are the basic components of an abstract in any discipline:
1) Motivation/problem statement: Why do we care about the problem? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your research filling?2) Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
3) Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
4) Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified in step 1?
However, it's important to note that the weight accorded to the different components can vary by discipline. For models, try to find abstracts of research that is similar to your research.
What is an abstract?
An abstract is a condensed version of a longer piece of writing that highlights the major points covered, concisely describes the content and scope of the writing, and reviews the writing's contents in abbreviated form. Two types of abstracts are typically used: Descriptive Abstracts & Informative Abstracts
Although an abstract appears as the first section of a paper, it should be written last. You need to have completed all other sections before you can select and summarize the essential information from those sections.
What goes in an abstract?
In doing any research, a researcher has an objective, uses methods, obtains results, and draws conclusions. In writing the paper to describe the research, an author might discuss background information, review relevant literature, and detail procedures and methodologies. However, an abstract of the paper should:
-describe the objective, methods, results, and conclusions;
-omit background information, a literature review, and detailed description of methods;
-avoid reference to other literatures.
Qualities of a Good Abstract
An effective abstract has the following qualities:
-uses one or more well developed paragraphs: these are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone.
-uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure which presents the article, paper, or report's purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations in that order.
-follows strictly the chronology of the article, paper, or report.
-provides logical connections (or transitions) between the information included.
-adds no new information, but simply summarizes the report.
-is understandable to a wide audience.
-oftentimes uses passive verbs to downplay the author and emphasize the information. Check with your teacher if you're unsure whether or not to use passive voice.
Steps for Writing Effective Abstracts
To write an effective abstract, follow these steps:
1.Reread the article, paper, or report with the goal of abstracting in mind.
-Look specifically for these main parts of the article, paper, or report: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendation.
-Use the headings, outline heads, and table of contents as a guide to writing your abstract.
-If you're writing an abstract about another person's article, paper, or report, the introduction and the summary are good places to begin. These areas generally cover what the article emphasizes.
2.After you've finished rereading the article, paper, or report, write a rough draft without looking back at what you're abstracting.
-Don't merely copy key sentences from the article, paper, or report: you'll put in too much or too little information.
-Don't rely on the way material was phrased in the article, paper, or report: summarize information in a new way.
3.Revise your rough draft to
-correct weaknesses in organization.
-improve transitions from point to point.
-drop unnecessary information.
-add important information you left out.
-eliminate wordiness.
-fix errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Мэргэжлийн багшийн өгч байгаа текстүүдийн аль нэгний абстрактийг бичнэ.
Sep 11, 2009
CV
Curriculum Vitae Example
CONTACT INFORMATION
Name
Address
Country
Telephone
Cell Phone
Email
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Citizenship
Visa Status
Gender
Additional Personal Information:
Optional
Marital Status
Spouse's Name
Children
EMPLOYMENT HISTORY
List in chronological order, include position details and dates of employment
Work History
Academic Positions
Research and Training
EDUCATION
Include dates, majors, and details of degrees, training, and
Post-Doctoral Training
PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
Certifications and Accreditations
Computer Skills
AWARDS
PUBLICATIONS
BOOKS
PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS
LANGUAGES
List languages and fluency
INTERESTS
Presentation
http://www.slideshare.net/drsamehs/how-to-deliver-an-extremely-boring-presentation
